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November 2002
Updated: 16 May 2004; 12 April 2005;
27 March 2006; 20 September 2006; 25 March 2007; 5 November 2008
Last Updated: 11 July 2010 |
Cognitive Mapping
Definitions, Examples, and Resources |
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Cognitive mapping may be defined as
a process composed of a series of psychological transformations by which an individual acquires, codes, stores, recalls, and decodes information
about the relative locations and attributes of phenomena in their everyday spatial environment.
In more general terms, a cognitive map may be defined as "an overall mental image or representation of the space and layout of a setting", which means that the act of cognitive mapping is "the mental
structuring process leading to the creation of a cognitive map".
Use and history of the concept
[...]
Cognitive map is the term used to refer to one's internal representation of the experienced world. Cognitive mapping includes the various processes used to sense, encode, store,
decode, and use this information. Cognitive maps are invariably incomplete and partially distorted, features that can be revealed in external representations or in spatial
behaviors. [...]
Edward Tolman (1947)1 inferred the existence of cognitive maps by recording the spatial behavior of a maze-running rat who took a "short cut" to the final destination by running
across the top of a maze instead of following a route through it.
Recognition of this "place learning" activity stimulated multidisciplinary research in spatial knowledge acquisition.
In city planning, Kevin Lynch2 used sketch maps to reveal human knowledge of large-scale complex environments.
Geographers researched the nature of "mental maps" via revealed place preference, subjective distance and configurational (layout) representation using non-metric multidimensional scaling
(MDS) and layout matching (spatial congruence) techniques.
The methods used to assess spatial knowledge and examine how it is created have multiplied as researchers from anthropology, psychology, disability studies, artificial intelligence,
computer science, and geography have explored assessment methods including pointing (for direction and orientation), interpoint distance examination (for spatial structure and layout
and geometry), landmark learning, location/place hierarchies based on anchor point concepts, path integration (short-cutting and spatial updating), piloting (landmark navigation),
chunking (route learning), "look-back strategies" (place fixing), verbalizing acquired knowledge (spatial linguistics) and other methods that use repeated behaviors to reveal and
assess the spatial information contained in long-term memory (i.e. in cognitive maps).
Cognitive mapping is a neuropsychological process, with both conscious and unconscious aspects. Cognitive maps can be generated with or without conscious intent, and they are not always self-intimating. "Although the cognitive map represents a set of processes of unknown physiological and controversial
psychological nature," write Downs and Stea (1980), "its effect and function are clear. We believe that a cognitive map exists if an individual behaves as if a cognitive map exists."
Cognitive mapping is an umbrella term. Causal mapping, semantic mapping, and concept mapping are all encompassed by the term
cognitive mapping, referring to mental models or schemata. Different types of cognitive maps and mapping are defined with some latitude and overlap, depending upon preference and
context. The following article provides a useful set of distinctions.
[...]
2. COGNITIVE MAPPING TECHNIQUES
People like using graphical structures to help make sense of information. In psychology, "cognitive map" is a term developed by Tolman (1948) to describe an individual's internal mental
representation of the concepts and relations among concepts. This internal mental representation is used to understand the environment and make decisions accordingly. Cognitive maps are
regarded as "internally represented schémas or mental models for particular problem-solving domains that are learned and encoded as a result of an individual's interaction with [th]eir environment"
(Swan, 1997 pp. 188). Therefore, cognitive maps provide a presentation for what is known and believed, and exhibit [th]e reasoning behind purposeful actions (Fiol & Huff, 1992).
In contrast, cognitive mapping techniques are used to identify subjective beliefs and to portray [th]ese beliefs externally (Fiol & Huff, 1992). The general approach is to extract subjective
statements from individuals, within a particular problem domain, about meaningful concepts and relations among these concepts, and [th]en to describe [th]ese concepts and relations in some kind
of graphical layout (Swan, 1997). The outcome of a cognitive mapping technique is usually referred to as a cognitive map [...]
2.1 Causal mapping
Causal mapping is one of the most commonly used cognitive mapping techniques in investigating the cognition of decision makers in organizations (Swan, 1997). Causal mapping is derived from
personal construct theory (Kelly, 1955). This theory posits that an individual's set of perspectives is a system of personal constructs and individuals use their
own personal constructs to understand and interpret events. In other words, an individual understands [th]e environment with salient concepts (constructs), which
can be expressed by ei[th]er simple single-polar phrases or contextually rich bipolar phrases. An example of single-polar phrase is "good reader", while an
example of bipolar phrase is "good computer skills - poor computer skills". As revealed by its name, a causal map represents a set of causal relationships
among constructs within a belief system. Through capturing the cause effect relationships, insights into the reasoning of a particular person are acquired. [...]
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2.2 Semantic mapping
It must be pointed out that causal assertions are only part of an individual's total belief system. There are some
cognitive mapping techniques that can be used to identify other relations among concepts. Semantic mapping, also known as idea mapping, is used to explore an
idea without the constraints of a superimposed structure (Buzan, 1993). To make a semantic map, one starts at the center of the paper with the main idea, and
works outwards in all directions, producing a growing and organized structure composed of key words and key images. Around the main idea (a central word),
five to ten ideas (child words) that are related to the central word are drawn. Each of these "child" words then serves as a sub-central word for the next level
drawing (Buzan, 1993). In other words, a semantic map has one main or central concept with tree-like branches. [...]
2.3 Concept mapping
Another popular cognitive mapping technique is called concept mapping. David Ausubel (Ausubel, 1968) emphasized on the importance of prior knowledge in being able
to learn about new concepts. Drawing on this theory, Novak (1993) concludes that existing cognitive structures are critical for learning new concepts. A concept map
is a graphical representation where nodes represent concepts, and links represent the relationships between concepts. The links, with labels to represent the type
of relationship between concepts, can be one-way, two-way, or non-directional. The concepts and the links may be categorized, and the concept map may show temporal
or causal relationships between concepts. Concept mapping is useful in generating ideas, designing a complex structure, communicating complex ideas, aiding learning by
explicitly integrating new and old knowledge, as well as assessing understanding or diagnosing misunderstanding (Jonassen, Beissner, & Yacci, 1993). [...] [Read More]
A Concept map is a type of cognitive map, in this sense, which may be taken to represent
a structured process, focused on a topic or construct of interest, involving input from one or more participants, that produces an interpretable pictorial
view (concept map) of their ideas and concepts and how these are interrelated.
Basically, a concept map is a graphical representation of the structure of knowledge.
In the 1960s, Joseph D. Novak (1993) at Cornell University began to study the concept mapping technique. His work was based on the theories of David Ausubel (1968), who stressed the importance of prior knowledge in being able to learn about new concepts. Novak concluded that "Meaningful learning involves the assimilation of new concepts
and propositions into existing cognitive structures." A concept map is a graphical representation where nodes (points or vertices) represent concepts, and links (arcs or lines) represent the relationships between concepts. The concepts, and sometimes the links, are labeled on the concept map. The links between the concepts can be one-way,
two-way, or non-directional. The concepts and the links may be categorized, and the concept map may show temporal or causal relationships between concepts. A concept map is a graphical representation where nodes (points or vertices) represent concepts, and links (arcs or lines) represent the relationships between concepts. The concepts, and sometimes the links, are labeled on the concept map. The links between the concepts can be one-way, two-way, or non-directional. The concepts and the links may
be categorized, and the concept map may show temporal or causal relationships between concepts.
In a brief paper entitled Concept Mapping in Social Research (2010), Bharat Prasad Pokharel refers to concepts as "the abstract
terms we employ to explain or make sense of our experience"; he cites Dey's (1993: 275) definition of concept — "a general idea which stands for a class of objects", and provides several examples.
Pokharel explores the sources and types of concepts, as well as problems associated with concept use, chiefly, the fact that as the level of abstraction increases and the concept is more removed from objectively verifiable fact,
interpretive differences also increase.
Still more challenging are concepts that are familiar but not well understood, such as leadership, motivation, personality, social class, and fiscal
policy. For example, personality has been defined in the research literature in more than 400 ways (Hoover, 1991: 21). Although this may seem extreme, writers are not
able to express the complexity of the determinants of personality and its attributes (e.g., authoritarianism, risk taking, locus of control, achievement orientation and
dogmatism) in a fashion that produces agreement (Saunders et al., 2003). The concepts described represent progressive levels of abstraction — that is, the degree to
which the concept does or does not have objective referents. [...]
Factors of personality may also influence the construction and interpretation of concept maps, as does the context model under which one
operates at any point in time. In Effect of Concept Mapping on Myers-Briggs Personality Types (2006), John W. Pelley writes that "the process of constructing a
concept map is approached differently by each of the Myers-Briggs personality types because these types are characterized by different preferences for information processing".
Sensing types are most at ease with linear thinking that sees knowledge in the form of lists of facts and procedural rules (linear learners), whereas intuitive types are most at ease
with pattern thinking that sees knowledge as interconnected concepts (integrative learners). The need for certainty in the sensing type creates a significant barrier to both learning
and implementing concept mapping, while the need for big picture learning makes concept mapping a satisfying intellectual exercise for intuitive types. Because
concept mapping includes several orders of cognitive complexity, it is a tool that can be used to sensing types overcome the tendency to avoid the use of higher order thinking skills.
The result is better developed critical thinking and improved long-term memory. Concept mapping benefits each of the Myers-Briggs personality types by helping to develop the use of
their non-preferred mental functions.
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Concept maps are graphical tools for organizing and representing knowledge. They include
concepts, usually enclosed in circles or boxes of some type, and relationships between
concepts indicated by a connecting line linking two concepts. Words on the line, referred to
as linking words or linking phrases, specify the relationship between the two concepts. We
define concept as a perceived regularity in events or objects, or records of events or
objects, designated by a label. The label for most concepts is a word, although sometimes
we use symbols such as + or %, and sometimes more than one word is used. Propositions
are statements about some object or event in the universe, either naturally occurring or
constructed. Propositions contain two or more concepts connected using linking words or
phrases to form a meaningful statement. Sometimes these are called semantic units, or
units of meaning. Figure 1 shows an example of a concept map that describes the structure
of concept maps and illustrates the above characteristics.
Figure 1. A concept map showing the key features of concept maps.
Concept maps tend to be read progressing from the top downward. |
Another characteristic of concept maps is that the concepts are represented in a hierarchical
fashion with the most inclusive, most general concepts at the top of the map and the more
specific, less general concepts arranged hierarchically below. The hierarchical structure for
a particular domain of knowledge also depends on the context in which that knowledge is
being applied or considered. Therefore, it is best to construct concept maps with reference
to some particular question we seek to answer, which we have called a focus question. The
concept map may pertain to some situation or event that we are trying to understand
through the organization of knowledge in the form of a concept map, thus providing the
context for the concept map.
Another important characteristic of concept maps is the inclusion of cross-links. These are
relationships or links between concepts in different segments or domains of the concept
map. Cross-links help us see how a concept in one domain of knowledge represented on the
map is related to a concept in another domain shown on the map. In the creation of new
knowledge, cross-links often represent creative leaps on the part of the knowledge
producer. There are two features of concept maps that are important in the facilitation of
creative thinking: the hierarchical structure that is represented in a good map and the ability
to search for and characterize new cross-links.
A final feature that may be added to concept maps is specific examples of events or objects
that help to clarify the meaning of a given concept. Normally these are not included in
ovals or boxes, since they are specific events or objects and do not represent concepts. [...] [Read More] |
The Medicine Wheel as a Concept Map
The framework described above is quite specific, yet concept maps can take many forms. In the following example, utilizing the Medicine Wheel, hierarchical structure depends upon
the context and perspective from which one approaches the map.
The Medicine Wheel is a model of all creation, both reality and metaphor, representing all aspects and all facets of life.1,5,6 Everyone
and everything has a place in the natural order of the universe. Each point on the circle represents a different yet equally valid perspective on reality.2 There is no uniform version
of the Medicine Wheel. The culture and religion of each of the approximately 350 tribal groups was community-based, and it is thought that the development of the individual was emphasized in the
context of a greater whole, supporting individual differences and avoiding conflict within the tribe.2
Medicine Wheels thus take many different forms, and it is not always clear what the unique meaning or specific use of them might have been. The Bighorn Medicine Wheel in Wyoming7 is a good case in point.
In 1974, an archaeoastronomer named Jack Eddy visited this Medicine Wheel and studied its alignments, that is, its arrangements of rocks, cairns, and spokes. He found the arrangements point to
the rising and setting places of the Sun at summer solstice, as well as the rising places of Aldebaran in Taurus, Rigel in Orion, and Sirius in Canis Major -- all bright, important stars associated
with the Solstice. Later another astronomer, Jack Robinson, found a cairn pair that marked the bright star Fomalhaut's rising point with the Sun 28 days before solstice.3
A given site may have been abandoned by its original creators, then used by others for their own purposes. In many cases, these sites are regarded as places of power.
No one knows the true origin or purpose of the [Bighorn] Medicine Wheel. Prospectors discovered the Medicine Wheel around 1885, however carbon-14 dating done on a piece of wood used in the construction
of one of the cairns dates back to 1760. Today, scientists and archeologists believe that the Medicine Wheel was created between A.D. 1200 and 1700 by Native Americans.
There are many theories that explain the intended purpose of the Medicine Wheel. Some archeologists believe that the 28 spokes represent the 28 days in a month, and two of the 6 cairns
mark the horizons of sunrise and sunset, while the remaining four mark the rising of the three brightest stars. Other archeologists claim that the Native Americans who built the Medicine
Wheel had no use for an organized calendar because they were not farmers. These archeologists believe instead that the Medicine Wheel carried religious significance and was used in
religious ceremonies. Still other archeologists believe that the Medicine Wheel was a place for powerful events to take place and that people visited the sacred site to gain strength and power.
Whatever the Medicine Wheel was originally built for, it has been used as a place of prayer for many Native Americans. Chief Joseph of the Nez Perce tribe was known to fast at the Wheel,
while Chief Washakie of the Shoshone tribe claimed to have obtained his medicine there.4
Regarding the origin and ubiquity of the Medicine Wheel among the Five Nations (Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca) of the Iroquois Confederacy, consider the following summary:
Tribes were obsessed with wiping out their "enemies." Then a dramatic shift in perception occurred, and a peace was realized, which lasted for a period of 150 to 200 years. This long truce was
the result of a great Iroquois chief, (sounds like Agonawila), later to become Hiawatha, who urged the tribes to cease the madness of brother killing brother, and formed an alliance, which came
to be known as the Confederation of Nations. The Confederation recognized that Indian peoples were more alike than different. Even though they spoke different dialects, they had the same basic
belief systems and followed similar traditions.
An important part of this transformation was the medicine wheel, which was placed in front of every tepee, and decorated in special symbols, colors, and stones, to let people entering the tribe
know about its inhabitants. The wheel was a reflection of an individual's strengths and weaknesses, and it gave people guidelines to follow for personal growth. It told people what they needed
to learn and what they needed to teach. Everyone was ordered to work on themselves, or else leave the tribe. After several generations of this work, people lost the concept of blame and anger.
This, in turn, resulted in the longest peace in modern history.8
As Jacqueline Ottmann (2005) writes:
Most First Nations people believe that all of creation, seen and unseen, is interconnected. Essentially, all things are seen as related, and there is a personal
connection and relationship to all things. Because things are connected and interconnected there is significance to everything large and small. Chief Seattle (as
cited in Jeffers, 1991) said, "This we know: All things are connected like the blood that unites us. We did not weave the web of life, we are merely a strand in it.
Whatever we do to the web, we do to ourselves" (p. 20). Consequently, harmony is continually sought and all of creation is valued and essentially revered because of
the inextricable interconnectedness of our universe. There is a belief that even the slightest event, action, or thought may have tremendous repercussions. [...]9
With these contextual notes in mind, here's a closer look at a Medicine Wheel as a concept map.
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Semantic Maps
Semantic mapping is a strategy for graphically representing concepts. Semantic maps portray the schematic relations that compose a concept. It assumes that there
are multiple relations between a concept and the knowledge that is associated with the concept. Thus, for any concept there are at least these three types of associations:
- associations of class -- the order of things the concept falls into;
- associations of property -- the attributes that define the concept; and
- associations of example -- exemplars of the concept.
Semantic maps are graphic representations that show how key words or concepts are related to one another. In considering the Medicine Wheel above, for example,
we dealt with a set of concepts in a sociocultural, psychospiritual model of the world. Unless the reader were already familiar with the worldview so described, the
semantic value of the map may not have been immediately apparent. Explanatory text preceded and references followed the core illustration to provide a contextual framework that might
engage semantic memory and analysis. The Medicine Wheel concept map becomes a semantic map when it means something in personal experience — when we can process the information
in a meaningful way.
The information-processing model at left (Leder, et al. 2004) has application with respect to semantic mapping; it shows the neurocognitive mechanisms of information flow from one component process to the next
in the mental representation of a work of art:
perceptual analysis → implicit memory integration → explicit classification → cognitive mastering → evaluation1
Semantic processing involves several different mechanisms as the brain integrates information in response to a work of art, or to a semantic map. Semantic activation may be
diffuse or direct, engage a range of neuropsychological and psychodynamic processes, perceptual, memory, and cognitive functions, conscious and unconscious emotional responses, etc.
Ideally, such processing results in new associations, inferences, intuitions and insight.
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Semantic mapping is an important concept in the evolution of the Web. Brainchild of Tim Berners-Lee, the Semantic Web is a vision of the Web in which "information
is given well-defined meaning, better enabling computers and people to work in cooperation".
The idea involves defining and linking data on the Web in such a way that it is also machine-readable, based on RDF and as yet undefined standards that will allow data to be utilized for automation, integration and
data reuse across various applications, rather than simply displayed.
Software...
Altova SemanticWorks® 2010 is the ground-breaking visual RDF/OWL
editor from the creators of XMLSpy. Visually design Semantic Web instance documents, vocabularies, and ontologies then output them in either RDF/XML or N-triples
formats. SemanticWorks streamlines the job with tabs for classes, properties, instances, etc., context-sensitive entry helpers, and automatic format checking.
[Read more] |
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Visual Schemata
Visual Think Map, a Ning social network site with about 90 members, provides many examples of visual schemata that quickly and effectively
convey detailed information through inspiring graphics. Among the collection are maps, diagrams, info graphics, mindmaps,
brainstorms, sketchbooks, notebooks, flowcharts, and more. In the founder's words, "they are very good resources of inspiration
for various design jobs as they solve communication problems using easy to understand graphics [...] basically great graphics
that look great (form) and communicate detailed info quickly and easily (function)."
In the image at right, for example, is San Francisco designer Andy Proehl's Mississippi River Type Map, from his "Typography of Place" series, a word map of the cities and towns along the Mississippi River. |
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