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Marijuana — Clinical Studies

Further Reading — Clinical Studies

NOTE: You can search for more recent research articles on the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) website.

PubMed, a service of the National Library of Medicine, [which] includes over 14 million citations for biomedical articles back to the 1950's. These citations are from MEDLINE and additional life science journals. PubMed includes links to many sites providing full text articles and other related resources.

1. Cannabis in painful HIV-associated sensory neuropathy: A randomized placebo-controlled trial
   
   D. I. Abrams, MD; C. A. Jay, MD; S. B. Shade; MPH, H. Vizoso, RN; H. Reda, BA; S. Press, BS; M. E. Kelly, MPH; M. C. Rowbotham, MD; K. L. Petersen, MD.
   
   From the Community Consortium, Positive Health Program (D.I.A., S.B.S., H.V., M.E.K.), Hematology-Oncology (D.I.A., M.E.K.), and Neurology (C.A.J.), Divisions at San Francisco General Hospital; and Departments of Medicine (D.I.A., S.B.S., H.V., M.E.K.) and Neurology (C.A.J., H.R., S.P., M.C.R., K.L.P.), and the UCSF Pain Clinical Research Center (H.R., S.P., M.C.R., K.L.P.), University of California San Francisco.
   
   

   NEUROLOGY 2007;68:515-521, © 2007 American Academy of Neurology.
   
   Objective: To determine the effect of smoked cannabis on the neuropathic pain of HIV-associated sensory neuropathy and an experimental pain model.
   
   Methods: Prospective randomized placebo-controlled trial conducted in the inpatient General Clinical Research Center between May 2003 and May 2005 involving adults with painful HIV-associated sensory neuropathy. Patients were randomly assigned to smoke either cannabis (3.56% tetrahydrocannabinol) or identical placebo cigarettes with the cannabinoids extracted three times daily for 5 days. Primary outcome measures included ratings of chronic pain and the percentage achieving >30% reduction in pain intensity. Acute analgesic and anti-hyperalgesic effects of smoked cannabis were assessed using a cutaneous heat stimulation procedure and the heat/capsaicin sensitization model.
   
   Results: Fifty patients completed the entire trial. Smoked cannabis reduced daily pain by 34% (median reduction; IQR = –71, –16) vs 17% (IQR = –29, 8) with placebo (p = 0.03). Greater than 30% reduction in pain was reported by 52% in the cannabis group and by 24% in the placebo group (p = 0.04). The first cannabis cigarette reduced chronic pain by a median of 72% vs 15% with placebo (p < 0.001). Cannabis reduced experimentally induced hyperalgesia to both brush and von Frey hair stimuli (p 0.05) but appeared to have little effect on the painfulness of noxious heat stimulation. No serious adverse events were reported.
   
   Conclusion: Smoked cannabis was well tolerated and effectively relieved chronic neuropathic pain from HIV-associated sensory neuropathy. The findings are comparable to oral drugs used for chronic neuropathic pain.

2. Survey of medicinal cannabis use among childbearing women: Patterns of its use in pregnancy and retroactive self-assessment of its efficacy against ‘morning sickness’.
   Rachel E. Westfall, Patricia A. Janssen, Philippe Lucas, Rielle Capler
   Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice (2006) 12, 27–33.
   
   See also:
   
   • Maternal use of cannabis and pregnancy outcome
     Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Northstone, K and the ALSPAC Study Team. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 2002; 109:21-27
     
     
   • Cannabis and pregnancy,
     Balle J, Olofsson MJ, Hilden J
     H:S Hvidovre Hospital, familieambulatoriet.
     Ugeskr Laeger 1999 Sep 6; 161(36):5024-8
     
     
   • Menstrual cramps, morning sickness and labour pain
     Many references on the use and effects of marijuana in pregnancy.
     
     
   • The effects of smoking cannabis [on fetal development],
     Birth Research News, July/August 1998, Vol 3, Number 4
     
     
   • Prenatal Marijuana Exposure and Neonatal Outcomes in Jamaica: An ethnographic study
     Melanie C. Dreher, PhD; Kevin Nugent, PhD; and Rebekah Hudgins, MA
     Pediatrics, February 1994, Vol 93, Number 2, pp.254-260. American Academy of Pediatrics
     
     
   • Women, Marijuana, And Pregnancy,
     from Recreational Drugs Information
   
   
3. Relationship between Adolescent Marijuana Use and Young Adult Illicit Drug Use.
   Lessem JM, Hopfer CJ, Haberstick BC, Timberlake D, Ehringer MA, Smolen A, Hewitt JK.
   Behav Genet. 2006 Mar 25
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4. Misperceptions of college student marijuana use: implications for prevention.
   Kilmer JR, Walker DD, Lee CM, Palmer RS, Mallett KA, Fabiano P, Larimer ME.
   J Stud Alcohol. 2006 Mar;67(2):277-81.
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5. The effect of cannabis on urge incontinence in patients with multiple sclerosis: a multicentre, randomised placebo-controlled trial (CAMS-LUTS).
   Freeman RM, Adekanmi O, Waterfield MR, Waterfield AE, Wright D, Zajicek J.
   Int Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct. 2006 Mar 22
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6. Changes in maternal marital status are associated with young adults' cannabis use: evidence from a 21-year follow-up of a birth cohort.
   Hayatbakhsh MR, Najman JM, Jamrozik K, Mamun AA, Williams GM, Alati R.
   Int J Epidemiol. 2006 Mar 21
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7. On cannabis, chloral hydrate, and career cycles of psychotropic drugs in medicine.
   Snelders S, Kaplan C, Pieters T.
   Bull Hist Med. 2006 Spring;80(1):95-114.
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8. Herbal products and their association with substance use in adolescents.
   Yussman SM, Wilson KM, Klein JD.
   J Adolesc Health. 2006 Apr;38(4):395-400.
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9. Cannabis use and other illicit drug use: testing the cannabis gateway hypothesis.
   Fergusson DM, Boden JM, Horwood LJ.
   Addiction. 2006 Apr;101(4):556-69.
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10. Dissecting the causal anatomy of the link between cannabis and other illicit drugs.
    Hall W.
    Addiction. 2006 Apr;101(4):472-3. No abstract available.
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11. 70: Some go without a cig Cannabis use among non-tobacco users.
    Suris JC, Jeannin A, Chossis I, Michaud PA.
    J Adolesc Health. 2006 Feb;38(2):150. No abstract available.
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12. Cannabinoids in medicine: A review of their therapeutic potential.
    Ben Amar M.
    J Ethnopharmacol. 2006 Mar 13; [Epub ahead of print]
    PMID: 16540272 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
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13. Mother's Milk and the Muffin ManGrassroots Innovations in Medical Marijuana Delivery Systems.
    Chapkis W, Webb RJ.
    J Ethn Subst Abuse. 2005;4(3-4):183-203.
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14. Using Marijuana in Adulthood - The Experience of a Sample of Users in Oklahoma City.
    Shukla RK.
    J Ethn Subst Abuse. 2005;4(3-4):153-81.
    PMID: 16537332 [PubMed - in process]
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15. Social meanings of marijuana use for southeast asian youth.
    Lee JP, Kirkpatrick S.
    J Ethn Subst Abuse. 2005;4(3-4):135-51.
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16. Youth Gangs and DrugsThe Case of Marijuana.
    Mackenzie K, Hunt G, Joe-Laidler K.
    J Ethn Subst Abuse. 2005;4(3-4):99-133.
    PMID: 16537330 [PubMed - in process]
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17. Bongs and BluntsNotes from a Suburban Marijuana Subculture.
    Kelly BC.
    J Ethn Subst Abuse. 2005;4(3-4):81-97.
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18. The growth in marijuana use among american youths during the 1990s and the extent of blunt smoking.
    Golub A, Johnson BD, Dunlap E.
    J Ethn Subst Abuse. 2005;4(3-4):1-21.
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19. Comparison of smoking, drinking, and marijuana use between students present or absent on the day of a school-based survey.
    Bovet P, Viswanathan B, Faeh D, Warren W.
    J Sch Health. 2006 Apr;76(4):133-7.
    PMID: 16536852 [PubMed - in process]
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20. Trajectories of Marijuana Use During the Transition to Adulthood: The Big Picture Based on National Panel Data.
    Schulenberg JE, Merline AC, Johnston LD, O'malley PM, Bachman JG, Laetz VB.
    J Drug Issues. 2005;35(2):255-279.
    Related Articles, Cited Articles, Free in PMC, Books



21. Anesthetic management of the illicit-substance-using patient.
    Hernandez M, Birnbach DJ, Van Zundert AA.
    Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2005 Jun;18(3):315-324.
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22. Neuropsychological deficits in long-term frequent cannabis users.
    Messinis L, Kyprianidou A, Malefaki S, Papathanasopoulos P.
    Neurology. 2006 Mar 14;66(5):737-9.
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23. Experience with the synthetic cannabinoid nabilone in chronic noncancer pain.
    Berlach DM, Shir Y, Ware MA.
    Pain Med. 2006 Jan-Feb;7(1):25-9.
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24. Schizophrenia, ketamine and cannabis: evidence of overlapping memory deficits.
    Fletcher PC, Honey GD.
    Trends Cogn Sci. 2006 Mar 9;
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25. Cannabis and cannabis-based medicines: potential benefits and risks to health.
    Wilkins MR; Working Party on Cannabis and Cannabis-based Medicines.
    Clin Med. 2006 Jan-Feb;6(1):16-8. No abstract available.
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26. Long-term effects of frequent cannabis use on working memory and attention: an fMRI study.
    Jager G, Kahn RS, Van Den Brink W, Van Ree JM, Ramsey NF.
    Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2006 Apr;185(3):358-68. Epub 2006 Mar 7.
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27. New insights into endocannabinoid degradation and its therapeutic potential.
    Bari M, Battista N, Fezza F, Gasperi V, Maccarrone M.
    Mini Rev Med Chem. 2006 Mar;6(3):257-68.
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28. Cognitive function and mood in MDMA/THC users, THC users and non-drug using controls.
    Lamers CT, Bechara A, Rizzo M, Ramaekers JG.
    J Psychopharmacol. 2006 Mar;20(2):302-11.
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29. Neurological assessments of marijuana users.
    Cadet JL, Bolla K, Herning RI.
    Methods Mol Med. 2006;123:255-68.
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30. Assessment of cannabis craving using the Marijuana Craving Questionnaire.
    Heishman SJ, Singleton EG.
    Methods Mol Med. 2006;123:209-16.
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31. Medical marijuana and personal autonomy.
    Boyd AJ.
    John Marshall Law Rev. 2004 Summer;37(4):1253-88. No abstract available.
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32. Does cannabis hold the key to treating cardiometabolic disease?
    Szmitko PE, Verma S.
    Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med. 2006 Mar;3(3):116-7. No abstract available.
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33. Unheated Cannabis sativa extracts and its major compound THC-acid have potential immuno-modulating properties not mediated by CB1 and CB2 receptor coupled pathways.
    Verhoeckx KC, Korthout HA, van Meeteren-Kreikamp AP, Ehlert KA, Wang M, van der Greef J, Rodenburg RJ, Witkamp RF.
    Int Immunopharmacol. 2006 Apr;6(4):656-65. Epub 2005 Nov 7.
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34. Cannabinoids and cancer: pros and cons of an antitumour strategy.
    Bifulco M, Laezza C, Pisanti S, Gazzerro P.
    Br J Pharmacol. 2006 Feb 27
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35. Effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, the primary psychoactive cannabinoid in marijuana, on human sperm function in vitro.
    Whan LB, West MC, McClure N, Lewis SE.
    Fertil Steril. 2006 Mar;85(3):653-60.
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36. Estrogenic effects of marijuana smoke condensate and cannabinoid compounds.
    Lee SY, Oh SM, Chung KH.
    Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2006 Feb 22; [Epub ahead of print]
    PMID: 16499939 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
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37. Addictive potential of cannabinoids: the underlying neurobiology
    Eliot L. Gardner, Chemistry and Physics of Lipids, Vol.121, pp.267-290, 31 Dec 2002



38. Cannabinoid receptors and their relationships with neuropsychiatric disorders
    F. Gambi, D. De Berardis, G. Sepede, R. Quartesan, E. Calcagni, R.M. Salerno, C.M. Conti, F.M. Ferro, International Journal of Immunopathology and Pharmacology, 2005 Jan-Mar;18(1):15-20



39. Cannabinoids and analgesia
    J.W. Brooks, Current Anaesthesia and Critical Care, Vol.13, Aug 2002, pp.215-220



40. Cannabinoids for treatment of spasticity and other symptoms related to multiple sclerosis (CAMS study): multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trial
    John Zajicek, Patrick Fox, Hilary Sanders, David Wright, Jane Vickery, Andrew Nunn and Alan Thompson, The Lancet, Vol 362, Issue 9395, 8 November 2003, pp.1517-1526



41. Cannabis: a health perspective and research agenda
    WHO Programme on Substance Abuse, WHO/MSA/PSA97.4



42. Cannabis and mental health
    Joseph M. Rey and Christopher C. Tennant, BMJ editorial, Nov 2002, pp.1183-1184



43. Cannabis use and mental health in young people: cohort study
    George C. Patton, Carolyn Coffey, John B. Carlin, Louisa Degenhardt, Michael Lynskey, Wayne Hall, BMJ, Nov 2002, pp.1199-1212



44. Cannabis, Cannabinoids and the Brain
    An excellent collection of clinical abstracts and related references.



45. Cannabis (Marijuana) Dependence: Chronic or periodic use of cannabis producing some psychologic dependence but no physical dependence.
    The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy



46. Cannabis use and schizophrenia
    D. Wade, Am J Psychiatry 2005 Feb;162(2):401



47. Cannabis use and schizophrenia
    M.O. Krebs, C. Goldberger, A. Dervaux, Am J Psychiatry, 2005 Feb;162(2):401-2



48. Cognitive correlates of long-term cannabis use in costa rican men
    J. M. Fletcher, J. Bryan Page, D. J. Francis, K. Copeland, M. J. Naus, C. M. Davis, R. Morris, D. Krauskopf, P. Satz, Arch Gen Psychiatry, Vol.53, Nov 1996, p.1051



49. Comparative effects of alcohol and marijuana on mood, memory and performance
    S. J. Heishman, K. Arasteh and M.L. Stitzer, Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, Vol.58, No.1, pp.93-101, 1997



50. Dutch coffee shops and trends in cannabis use
    Dirk J. Korf, Addictive Behaviours, Vol.27, Issue 6, Nov-Dec 2002, pp.851-866



51. Early reactions to cannabis predict later dependence
    Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Lynskey MT, Madden, PAF. Archives of General Psychiatry, 2003; 60(10):1033-1039.



52. Effects of chronic marijuana use on human cognition
    R. I. Block and M. M. Ghoneim, Psychopharmacology, 110 (1993) pp.219-228



53. Health Aspects of Cannabis
    Leo E. Hollister, Pharmacological Reviews (1986), in Schaffer Library of Drug Policy



54. Heavy habitual marijuana smoking does not cause an accelerated decline in FEV1 with age
    D. P. Tashkin, M. S. Simmons, D. L. Sherrill, and A. H. Coulson, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Vol.155, pp.141-148, 1997



55. Is cannabis an anti-antipsychotic? The experience in psychiatric intensive care
    M. Isaac, M. Isaac, F. Holloway, Human Psychopharmacology, 2005 Jan 28



56. Marijuana and cocaine impair alveolar macrophage function and cytokine production
    G. C. Baldwin, D. P. Tashkin, D. M. Buckley, A. N. Park, S. M. Dubinett and M. D. Roth, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Vol.156, pp.1606-1613, 1997



57. Marijuana and Immunity
    Leo E. Hollister, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, April-June 1992, Vol. 24, pp.159-163



58. Marijuana intoxication and brain activation in marijuana smokers
    R. J. Mathew, W. J. Wilson, R. E. Coleman. T. G. Turkington, T. R. DeGrado
    Life Sciences, Vol.60, No.23, pp.2075-2089, 1997



59. Marijuana use in college students
    H. G. Pope & D. Yurgelun-Todd
    JAMA, 21 February 1996, Vol.275, No.7



60. Non-acute (residual) neurocognitive effects of cannabis use: a meta-analysis study
    Grant, I., Gonzalez, R., Carey, C., Natarajan, L., and Wolfson, T. (2003)
    Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 9, pp.679-689.



61. Relationships between frequency and quantity of marijuana use and last year proxy dependence among adolescents and adults in the United States
    K. Chen, D. B. Kandel, M. Davies
    Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 46 (1997) pp.53-67



62. Prevention of Alzheimer's Disease Pathology by Cannabinoids: Neuroprotection Mediated by Blockade of Microglial Activation
    B.G. Ramírez, C. Blázquez, T. Gómez del Pulgar, M. Guzmán, M.L. de Ceballos1 (2005)
    The Journal of Neuroscience, February 23, 2005, 25(8):1904-1913; doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4540-04.2005



63. Recurrent stroke associated with cannabis use
    I. Mateo, A. Pinedo, M. Gomez-Beldarrain, J.M. Basterretxea, J.C. Garcia-Monco
    J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 2005 Mar;76(3):435-7
    See summaries: NCBI PubMed, Regular cannabis may increase risk of stroke in young users



64. Respiratory effects of marijuana and tobacco use in a U.S. sample
    B.A. Moore, E.M. Augustson, R.P. Moser, A.J. Budney
    Journal of General Internal Medicine, 2005 Jan;20(1):33-7



65. Short-term effects of cannabinoids in patients with HIV-1 infection: a randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial
    Donald I. Abrams, Joan F. Hilton, Roslyn J. Leiser, Starley B. Shade, Tarek A. Elbeik, Francesca T. Aweeka, Neal L. Benowitz, Barry M. Bredt, Bradley Kosel, Judith A. Aberg, Steven G. Deeks, Thomas F. Mitchell, Kathleen Mulligan, Peter Bacchetti, Joseph M. McCune, and Morris Schambelan.
    Ann Intern Med, Aug 2003; 139: pp.258-266



66. Stout Guards of the Central Nervous System
    R. Mechoulam and A.H. Lichtman
    Science Magazine, 2003; 302: pp.65:67



67. Self-reported driving behaviour and attitudes towards driving under the influence of cannabis among three different user groups in England
    P. Terry, K.A. Wright
    Addictive Behavior 2005 Mar;30(3):619-26



68. The relationship between cannabis use and other substance use in the general population
    Louisa Degenhardt, Wayne Hall and Michael Lynskey
    Drug and Alcohol Dependence, Vol.64, Issue 3, 1 Nov 2001, pp.319-327



69. Understanding Marijuana: A new look at scientific evidence
    Mitch Earlywine
    Oxford University Press: 2002, 344pp.